The era of 3D printing technology has changed how industries conceive product development by providing a novel opportunity for innovation and rapid prototyping. This technology enables the maker of products to make physical models directly from computer-aided designs, making the process of moving from idea to reality highly efficient. The following essay examines the impact of 3D printing on the prototyping process to assess how businesses can automate design operations, minimize expenditure, and improve their products. Regardless if you’re an engineer, designer, or even an entrepreneur, staying abreast with the impact of 3D printing in product development helps you get the edge in a challenging environment. Get ready to realize not only the advantages but also the strategic opportunities that this spectrum of 3D printing technology possesses in carving out innovation’s future.
What is 3D Prototyping and How Does it Work?
3D prototyping or rapid prototyping is an industrial technique that enables the creation of a physical representation of a design using 3D printing technology. In the context of our modern processing techniques, “3D printing” refers to the use of advanced industrial 3D printers, which deposit a variety of materials, such as plastic, resin, or even metal, in layers to construct a three-dimensional object.
To start with, a digital model is designed on CAD software. An STL format of the respective model is generated and subsequently fed into the 3D printer to complete the product development cycle. The printer reads the file, and layer by layer, the material is added where needed for the prototype being constructed until it is fully realized in its three-dimensional form. The design is now presented in a physical form which allows the team to put it through functional tests, design tests, and adjust as needed promptly.
Because of its unparalleled efficiency, accuracy, and capability of producing complex geometries that are difficult to obtain with other forms of manufacturing, this approach has become the preferred method in almost all industries.
Understanding the Basics of a 3D Prototype
A 3D prototype is a physical model built by 3D printing, also known as additive manufacturing. It can also be used interchangeably with a digital model or design as it allows the user to analyze its measurements, usability, and design style. The process starts with a 3D model in a CAD file. The CAD file has to be converted into a printer-friendly file type such as STL. Then the 3D printer builds the prototype layer by layer which vastly improves the speed and accuracy of producing complex shapes. This method allows industries to enhance their designs, to ultimately transition into mass production.
The Role of a 3D Printer in Prototyping
3D printing has transformed prototyping by cutting down on the time and money spent on conventional manufacturing technologies. Evidence has shown that 3D printing can decrease the time it takes to create prototypes by as much as 90% enabling businesses to iterate and enhance product development cycles more effectively. This is possible due to the additive manufacturing technique, which does away with costly molds and tooling altogether.
Moreover, 3D printers can fabricate complex structures with intricate details that would otherwise be impossible to achieve with traditional techniques. This feature is beneficial for the aerospace, automotive, and healthcare industries that require precision and a high level of customization. For instance, in the field of biomedical engineering, 3D printing is frequently used to make customized prototypes of implants or surgical tools aiding in improved patient outcomes through designs catered towards specific individuals.
The variety of materials is important as well. Indeed, the recent 3D printers can accommodate an array of materials such as; plastics and metals, ceramics and composites. Research indicate that the global industry of 3D printing is expected to expand at a CAGR of 23.3% from 2022 to 2030, due to the increases in material science and technology. With such opportunities, 3D printing is redefining prototyping techniques and fostering innovations in modern design and manufacturing technologies, while shortening the time to market.
Exploring Different 3D Printing Technologies
Different applications and materials requirements need different 3D technologies tailored to it. One of the predominant techniques is Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM), which constructs objects incrementally using thermoplastic filament. FDM is well-known for being cost-effective and is most common for prototyping purposes within education and consumer industries. Other popular technologies include Stereolithography (SLA), which is widely used in dental, jewelry, engineering, and other applications, and uses laser-scanned models made of photopolymer resin cured with ultraviolet light. These models tend to be very intricate and well-detailed.
Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) is another advanced technology that uses a laser to sinter powdered nylon or metal with a laser to create durable and functional parts. This procedure is often used to make lightweight and robust parts in the aerospace and automotive industries. Electron Beam Melting (EBM) and Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS) are specialized methods that revolve around the fabrication of metal for complex, high-strength parts such as industrial and medical implant machinery.
Both PolyJet and Multi Jet Fusion (MJF) technologies are capable of producing multi-color and multi-material prints. In particular, MJF has been gaining popularity due to its speed and economical advantages when crafting parts with great quality in bulk amounts, making it optimal for the healthcare and consumer electronics industries.
According to the latest information, the implementation of these technologies differs according to specific industry requirements. For instance, the utilization of additive manufacturing within the aerospace industry has increased by 21% in 2023, which is fueled by the need for intricate designs and minimizing material usage. In addition, studies show that new developments in binder jetting, especially metals and ceramics, will improve productivity and expect a shift in use by 2025. These technologies are continuously changing, and proof that 3D printing will change production systems in many industries is clear.
Why Choose 3D Printing for Rapid Prototyping?
Benefits of 3D Printing in the Prototyping Process
The use of 3D printing in prototyping comes with key advantages, including the following:
- Speed and Efficiency: It allows for fast production of prototypes, which leads to faster development cycles in comparison to conventional manufacturing processes.
- Cost Effectiveness: There is no expensive tooling or molds needed which makes it cost-effective when producing single or low-volume prototypes.
- Design Flexibility: It is easier to achieve complex geometrical shapes and intricate designs, therefore allowing for more innovation and creativity in product development.
- Material Versatility: It is possible to use a variety of materials such as polymers, metals, and composites depending on the needs of the project.
- Reduction of Risk in product design quality management involves estimating possible consequences.: Flaws in design can be identified within a short period of time which in turn reduces errors and enhances the overall product quality.
3D printing technology proves incredibly useful in contemporary prototyping due to these reasons.
How 3D Prototyping Helps in Product Development
3D modeling enhances the product design process by improving concept visualization and accelerating model iterations because the designer can easily make a model. Designers can form quick physical models that allow for easy refinement and feedback during the initial phases of a project’s timeline. This prevents design errors from being produced during mass production. Moreover, 3D models enable functionality and usability evaluations, which aid in adjusting the designs for better performance and user satisfaction. Costly mistakes and time spent in the market can both be greatly reduced due to 3D modeling, thus improving the productivity and quality of the product.
Using 3D Printing to Market Products Faster
The application of 3D printing technology has greatly increased the speed with which products move from ideation to market. As per recent reports, manufacturers using 3D printing are claiming a decrease of nearly 64% in product development duration. This is largely accomplished due to rapid prototyping which enables businesses to iterate on designs in a fraction of the time compared to traditional manufacturing methods. Companies can produce functional prototypes in hours instead of weeks, thus enabling quicker refinement and validation of designs and reducing delays in the cyclic design process.
Moreover, 3D printing enables on-demand production, thereby making unnecessary extensive tooling procedures, which enables the reduction of production lead time. Businesses can thus respond to market needs quickly, launching small-batch products or customizations that respond directly to consumer demand. Other studies also suggest that costs with prototyping and tooling are cut down by 50 percent with the use of 3D printing, improving project feasibility and budgetary concerns.
Alongside a significant decrease in prototyping and tooling costs, the integration of 3D printing technology reduces turnaround time, allowing companies to be more responsive to market shifts while also making them more competitive. These factors emphasize the extensive impact that 3D printing technology continues to have on the improvement and advancement of product manufacturing approaches.
What Tools and Software are Essential for 3D Prototyping?
Choosing the Right CAD Software for 3D Design
It’s crucial to select the most effective Computer-Aided Design (CAD) software for optimal results in 3D prototyping. Some of the top choices are: AutoCAD, SolidWorks, Fusion 360, and CATIA, which address various design and sector requirements.
AutoCAD is one of the most useful and popular design software because it is so versatile. It operates in 2 and 3 dimensions, making it useful for users in construction, architecture, and engineering. SolidWorks is also a widely-used graphical interface, but is much more specialized, excelling at mechanical design and simulation, making it especially useful for industry settings. Another popular Autodesk branded software is Fusion 360. It distinguishes itself from the rest in that it is cloud-based, allowing for real-time collaboration and integration which is perfect for remote teams. CATIA, due to its highly sophisticated engineering and ability to aid in large project completion, is more frequently employed in the aerospace and automotive sectors.
Fusion 360 is rapidly evolving as a preferred CAD solution, partially due to the rise in subscription-based models that make it more affordable for small businesses and startups. It, alongside SolidWorks, is one of the most user-friendly CAD software; however, SolidWorks is better known for simulation and analysis, which saves a significant amount of time in physical testing, which is especially relevant to industrial employees.
When choosing CAD Software, a user must keep in mind elements such as affordability, specific captioned sector features, user-friendliness, as well as integration with external 3D printing tools like STL, OBJ, or AMF. An additional factor that must be included in the analysis is the time it takes for a user to adapt to a new platform since more sophisticated instruments tend to need heavy teaching. With well-defined evaluation processes, individuals and businesses would be able to select CAD software more appropriately or their projects and future aspirations.
Understanding Printing Materials for Functional Prototypes
Choosing the appropriate printing materials for functional prototypes varies from design to design. For economical purposes and general PLA prototypes, low-end materials are used. For high-end durable prototypes that require heat resistance, ABS and Nylon materials which are known for their strength and flexibility are used. Chemically resistant resin and PETG materials are preferred for high-precision prototypes. For precision prototypes requiring enhanced mechanical properties, metal filaments, and carbon fiber composites are also used. The effectiveness of testing and developing a prototype is greatly reduced if the materials that are chosen do not meet the functional parameters of the prototype.
Integrating 3D Printing Technologies in the Design Process
While integrating 3D printing technologies in the design processes, my efforts are geared towards deploying its prototyping functions to speed up the development processes and optimize designs. Different materials are used to make sure that durable, flexible, and chemically resistant functional requirements are met. This approach aids in iterative refinement, which helps contain production costs, while the efficiency and quality of the end product improve.
How to Select the Best 3D Printing Service for Your Prototype?
Evaluating Prototyping Services for Quality and Speed
While assessing the capability of a 3D printing service to meet the desired quality and speed, take into account the following pointers:
- Print Quality: Request prints to evaluate if the service can provide the needed level of accuracy, detail, and surface finish in prototyping or production. Confirm if they can assist with your project’s requirements.
- Materials Offered: The service must be able to provide the right materials that correspond to the prototype’s sufficiency, flexibility, or functional requirements.
- Lead Time: Check the turnaround time to ensure that the deadlines can be met without affecting the quality.
- Reputation: Review testimonials, portfolio samples, and reviews to determine trustworthiness and skill in consistently meeting expectations.
- Cost: The pricing of the service should be checked against the quality and speed of service offered in order to ascertain if it is reasonable. Remember to consider extra charges for expedited services or special materials.
Comparing Costs: 3D Printing vs. Traditional Manufacturing
Each method of manufacturing has its own advantages for setup costs, material expenses, and operational scale. Cost differencing overarching the implementation of automation and the employment of traditional interfaces like a CNC mill or injection molding machine as well as CNC machining tend to be more expensive at first because custom tooling and molds are necessary for them to function. These kinds of processes have a higher efficiency when implemented for large-scale production since the cost per unit becomes less and less with more units made.
The opposite can be said for 3D printing. While it is also costly, there are no molds or tooling that need to be purchased for fewer units to be made, making it a more affordable option for prototyping or low-volume production. The only factor affecting material costs is if the filament or resin is more commonly used such as PLA type filaments which have a price range of 20-50 dollars for a kilogram, or more specialized such as carbon fiber infused filaments and metal powders which tend to drive the cost significantly higher.
Standardized manufacturing stands to gain easily from purchasing bulk raw materials, which lessens value per unit when paid in a large quantity. This coupled with economies of scale tends to lead to an increase in profit margins, for example, the cost of injection molded items like cases for a computer can sell for 10 cents per unit when sold in thousands owing to the lowered price for a unit made through injection molding that can reach as low as ◊. However, those savings are counterbalanced by upfront expenses like tooling that can come out to be anywhere between 5 thousand to 25 thousand dollars depending on the complexity of design.
When it comes to small runs of production or parts that need to be customized, 3D printing is the most economical. Moreover, it facilitates quick changes to the model design without the costly retooling that is required in traditional methods. This gives 3D printing a competitive edge in industries like aerospace, healthcare, and automotive where speed and personalization are vital.
In the end, the cost-effectiveness of each approach is closely tied to the specifics of the project, including but not limited to the number of parts produced, materials used, and time available to complete the work. All of these factors must be evaluated by decision makers and the optimal strategy for manufacturing should be established.
Ensuring Cost-Effective Solutions in Prototyping
In order to achieve effective financial resolutions when it comes to prototyping and production, it is crucial to utilize advanced tools and methodologies. One trend that is becoming increasingly popular is the use of a hybrid approach that utilizes both traditional manufacturing as well as digital methods. For example, using a combination of CNC machining and 3D printing maintains a balance between prototyping and high-quality refinement while minimizing material waste.
In addition, choosing the right materials when prototyping can save a considerable amount of money. Polymers such as ABS or PLA are extensively used because they are economical as well as multifunctional. However, for industries that require higher endurance or heat resistance, value-engineered materials such as polycarbonate PC or nylon are offered at lower costs.
Similarly, using cloud-based design project simulations is becoming more and more important. With these tools, engineers can virtually test many iterations of a concept model allowing them to find design mistakes early, minimizing testing expenses and time spent developing new products. According to studies, performance spending on the optimization of initial designing considerably saves production costs by 20-30% due to reduced iterations and mistakes through better-designed systems.
Moreover, specific working arrangements with design service providers concentrated on prototyping are also helpful. Such providers who specialize in end-to-end service, in which design aid, material procurement, and post-process work are integrated, improve cost-efficiency by reducing workflow bottleneck costs.
Through the adoption of new technologies, specific materials, and comprehensive services, companies can devise an effective, cost-minimizing, and fast-tracked scalable prototyping workflow.
What are the Challenges and Solutions in 3D Prototyping?
Addressing Common Problems in 3D Printing Prototypes
While the use of 3D printing technology for designed construction prototypes offers remarkable solutions for product development, some hurdles require consideration. Here are several common problems and ways to effectively address them:
Accurate Measurements and Upto Specifications Tolerances
Accomplishing accurate measurements and tight tolerances on prototypes is a common deficiency. Multiple factors such as temperatures during prints, properties of materials, and calibration of the printer could lead to inaccuracies. It is known that accuracy can be enhanced by nearly 15% with proper maintenance of printers and implementation of post-print accuracy, such as sanding or machining. Also, materials with lower coefficients of thermal expansions are recommended for high-precision engineering projects.
Surface finish quality
Particularly in fused deposition modeling (FDM), rough surface textures resurface as a challenge that needs to be addressed. Visibility of the layers in the models of the prototypes designed for visual inspection or marketing presentations disables the model’s effectiveness and usefulness. This challenge can be overcome through post-processing techniques such as chemical smoothing, sanding, or coating. Stereolithography (SLA) or selective laser sintering (SLS) offers inherently rougher but smoother finishes for superior-quality applications.
Boundaries with Materials
Certain prototyping materials will have properties like flexibility, biocompatibility, or strength which can make it possible to use a wide range of 3D printing materials. An industry study conducted in 2023 indicated that 65 percent of engineers had some form of material limitation as a constraint for part modeling. Breakthroughs in materials science have created specialized, and often more expensive, filaments and resins such as carbon-fiber infused polymers and medical grade resins for buttressed strength and healthcare applications respectively. During the design process, if the appropriate material is chosen, failures can be minimized by a large margin.
Defects with Warping and Adhesion of Layers
With larger or more intricate designs, printed material tends to cool unevenly which results in warping. Proper bed leveling, the use of heated build plates and adhesives, or tapes on the bed surface are some effective methods to appear to this issue. Research has shown that using a heated chamber can reduce the incidence of warping by 30-40% for materials like ABS and nylon.
Quality Voids with Speed on Print
Any manufacturer of prototypes dreads the tradeoff between speed and quality of the product. The detailing and strength is often depicted by higher production speeds. Certain settings like lower layer heights for detailed segments or dialing in infill patterns guarantee the control between speed and prototype quality with minimal compromise.
Businesses are able to improve the reliability and consistency of their 3D printed prototypes by taking a systematic approach to maintenance, material selection, advanced post-processing, and optimization of printer settings. These solutions also help in reducing product downtime and increasing end-product satisfaction.
Overcoming Limitations in 3D Printing Materials
Achieving an ideal tradeoff between strength, flexibility, heat tolerance, and cost has been a challenge due to the material limitations of 3D printing technologies. However, with time, newer material science advancements have been able to broaden the applicability of 3D printing.
Novel Material Compositions
The introduction of composite materials has addressed many previous weaknesses. For instance, the adoption of carbon fiber-reinforced polymers is expected to give a strength-to-weight ratio increase of 60% over standard thermoplastics. This increase makes these polymers ideal for use in the aerospace and automotive industries. Furthermore, emerging metal-polymer hybrid filaments offer an economical option for prototypes needing metal properties without the expenditure associated with full metal 3D printing.
Greater Biocompatibility in Medical Uses
The development of bioprinting materials has accelerated, specifically the use of biocompatible hydrogels and polycarbonate-based filaments in product design. Tissue engineering trials have shown these materials can achieve cell viability of 90%, which is a major step forward towards developing patient-specific implants and prosthetics through designing them using advanced computer-aided design software and 3D printing technologies.
Thermal Polymers With High Performance And Endurance
The development of high-performance thermoplastics, such as PEEK (Polyetheretherketone) and PEI (Polyetherimide), has minimized challenges connected to thermal deformation. For example, PEEK exceeds the 250-degree Celcius mark without losing its thermal and mechanical properties, making it highly sought after for complex industrial activities.
Reduction in Carbon Footprints Using Recycled and Plastics Marked For Organic Decomposition Synthesis
Sustainability is increasingly at the forefront of modern manufacturing. Polylactic acid (PLA) remains common as a biodegradable material, yet newer innovations feature filaments produced from recycled PETG (polyethylene terephthalate glycol). The tensile strength of these recycled materials is not much less than that of virgin materials; recent tests have shown a maximum 10% decrease in overall durability.
The combined use of innovative materials allows designers as well as manufacturers to surpass many constraints imposed by 3D print materials. With the ongoing research coupled with the adoption of advanced, multifunctional filaments, the industry is ready to branch out into other challenging sectors while taking into account economic and environmental issues.
Maximizing Iteration Efficiency to Reduce Lead Times
Simultaneously performing multiple tasks enables streamlining of cycle times and product development procedures. Engineering design techniques, such as Concurrent Engineering and Rapid Prototyping, have been designed to support the compression of the cycle time from design to production processes. As for rapid modification through advanced 3D printing technologies, functional models can be created in hours, compared to the days or weeks that were previously required. For example, research indicates that additive manufacturing techniques can lower the time required to produce prototypes by up to 63% compared to more traditional processes.
Also, the use of design simulation allows teams to spot possible design errors before any physical prototype is constructed. With this technique, not only is the amount of material wasted reduced but in addition, needless revisions of the design are avoided. For example, finite element analysis (FEA) software provides accurate stress and strain calculations and therefore allows ers to make changes to the design at the early stages of the procedure.
In addition, collaboration tools and technologies with digital twins are changing the landscape of efficiency and iterative design. Digital twins allow the virtual representation of physical assets to be monitored and tested in real-time making it possible to derive actionable insights that tie the data to performance objectives. Recent reports show that organizations using digital twin technology are reporting approximately a thirty percent reduction in development times.
Implementation of these sophisticated systems and technologies allows businesses to improve workflows, enhance productivity, and succeed like never before in the iterative design and production processes. This results in products being market-ready faster and the competitive edge being retained.
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)
Q: How does product development benefit from 3D printing?
A: The process of 3D printing helps to advance product development speed-wise through the technique of prototyping. Designers can easily make a physical model alongside a 3D model, streamlining the process. Because of this, businesses can validate designs, put the product through usability tests, and improve the product within a short time, which eventually lowers market wait time.
Q: What materials can be implemented for 3D printing utilized in prototyping?
A: As far as 3D printing and prototyping goes, a plethora of materials can be used; some include different forms of plastic, metals, ceramics, and even composite materials. Popular types are: Aluminum, ABS and PLA plastics, nylon, resin, titanium, stainless steel, and nylon. The range of materials provides the advantage of being able to reproduce fully functional prototypes that can be accurately tested and validated.
Q: What are the differences between 3D printing and conventional methods of manufacturing such as injection molding?
A: While injection molding is very useful for bulk production of products, printers have far more efficiency when it comes to the prototyping phase. They are cheaper for low-quantity products, allow bafflingly complex geometrical shapes that are near impossible for injection molding to produce, and don’t require expensive molds for rapid iterations. However, for big-scale production, injection molding still often proves to be more cost-effective.
Q: What are the main advantages of 3D printing in product development?
A: The merits of 3D printing in product development encompass functionalities along the lines of rapid prototype development, economical savings on prototypes, enhanced ability to build detailed complex shapes, easy alterations, lessened material wastage, and the ability to manufacture parts for working models. It also makes it possible to conduct tests simultaneously for several design variations, which reduces the number of stages in the stages of production development work.
Q: How does 3D printing improve the design iteration process?
A: 3D printing gives freedom to the designers and allows them to produce a 3D model and transform it into a physical model almost instantly. It greatly accelerates the ability to iterate a design while meeting time constraints as many cycles of problem-solving and optimization are done using physical validation where ideas are built and enhanced in rapid civilization. Designers can validate their concepts, modify them, and make better versions that need to be reprinted in a much shorter period than using regular prototyping techniques.
Q: Which sectors are experiencing the most profound effects of 3D printing technology on the development of products?
A: 3D printing is transforming industries through targeted product development alongside the notable impacts in aerial vehicles, automotive, medical devices, consumer products, and industrial tools technologies. It is now possible to design lightweight parts and prototype complex components quickly with 3D printing in the aerospace and automotive industries. In medical devices, it is now possible to design custom implants and prosthetic devices easily and quickly. 3D printing helps faster validation of concepts and personalized products by consumer product manufacturers, increasing the pace of development.
Q: What is the impact of 3D printing on savings in expenses incurred in the development of products?
A: There are various other uses for 3D printing, especially its cost-saving features. It eliminates expensive molds and tooling for prototypes, waste of materials is lower due to additive manufacturing, parts can be manufactured on demand meaning minimum stock needs which helps lower stock value, and design optimizations that make it possible to save on materials used in the final product. Also, when a 3D printer is used, the time to complete the task gets faster thus minimizing the total cost.
Q: What types of 3D printing technologies are commonly used in product development?
A: There is a range of 3D printing technologies developed for product use such as Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM), Stereolithography (SLA), Selective Laser Sintering (SLS), and Metal printing processes like Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS). Each technology has its strengths; FDM is affordable for plastic prototype parts, SLA provides detailed features with good surface finish, SLS is suited for functional prototype development, and metal 3D printing can fabricate complex shapes of metals that possess characteristics of parts produced by machining.
Reference Sources
1. Title: A rapid, maskless 3D prototyping for fabrication of capillary circuits: Toward urinary protein detection
- Author(s): Sheng Yan et al.
- Journal Title: Nucleic Acids Research
- Published on: September 11, 2021
- Citations: 56
- Summary: In this research, a method for rapid prototyping of microcapillary fluidic circuits by laser engraving is presented. The author describes a microfluidic system designed for rapid, on-site quantitative measurement of proteins in urine. The description provided by the author confirms that the device can be manufactured in a short time without the use of clean-room environments, which makes it ideal for point-of-care diagnostic testing. He demonstrates that the device is capable of quantifying urinary proteins. These results support the utilization of 3D prototyping in medicine, especially for diagnostic applications (Yan et al., 2018).
2. 3D Prototyping: Technology and Applications for CHD
- Author: M. Kappanayil
- Journal: CT and MRI in Congenital Heart Diseases.
- Publication Date: 19th December 2020.
- Citations: –
- Summary: The purpose of the study is to focus on the advancement in the multi-disciplinary fields of medicine using technology like 3D prototyping concerning congenital heart diseases (CHD). It shows how the attainment of 3D surgical models leads to the improvement of surgical education and planning via accurate models of patient-specific anatomy. The research underlines the role of 3D printing technology in achieving better surgical results and improved comprehension of complex structures of the heart (Kappanayil, 2020).
3. Continuous carbon Fiber reinforced Polylactic Acid (PLA) composites rapid prototyping with 3D printing technology
- Author: Nanya Li et al.
- Journal: Journal of Materials Processing Technology
- Date of Publication: 1st December 2016
- Citations: 559
- Final Comments: The main purpose of this study was to develop a method for the rapid prototyping of continuous carbon fiber reinforced polylactic acid (CFRTP) composites using 3D printing methodologies. The authors investigate the mechanical properties and performance of the composites confirming that carbon fibers have a remarkable effect on the strength and rigidity of the printed components. The results prove that the method described can be used for the fabrication of composites with advanced performance characteristics(Li et al., 2016, pp. 218-225).
4. Prototype
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